#?
#P[80]&#A*FAmerican^ Studies^ in^ China^ #FKVol.1#FS,^ 1994/_@#a$#P[100]
#J[-100]
#T3A STUDY OF AMERICAN CHRISTIAN$
HIGH SCHOOLS IN BEIJING (1920-1941)#t
#T4JI Hong#t
After the Second Opium War, European and American missionaries, Н
relying on the unequal treaties, came to Beijing and its neighboring Н
areas one after another. With the rise of one church after another in Н
Beijing, missionaries had set up in the church or at their own homes 
several Christian primary schools similar to the private schools in 
ancient China to recruit students. These schools were the predecessors Н
of Christian high schools in Beijing. The teaching at the early stage Н
of these schools focused on the teaching of the #FKBible#FS_ and the Н
graduates were mainly engaged in religious work. As time moved on to Н
the 20's and 30's of this century, with the social changes, Н
these schools had altered their orientation and curriculum. What were Н
the causes of these changes? What impact did they have on Chinese Н
society? This article intends to offer an explanation through a Н
historical survey of eight American Christian high schools in Beijing Н
in the period from 1920 to 1941. These schools were Peking Academy, Н
Mary Porter Gamewell School, Jefferson Academy, Goodrich Girls' Н
Schools, Yu Ying School, Bridgeman Girls' School, Truth Hall Academy Н
and Chung Tze Girls' School. They were set up from the 60's to the Н
70's in the 19th century respectively by American Methodist Church, Н
Congregational Church and Presbyterian Church.$
#T4I. Christian High Schools in a Dilemma#t
After decades of painstaking efforts by missionaries, these schools Н
began to take shape. The school buildings were in good condition and Н
the number of students and teachers in these schools was constantly Н
growing. Besides, they had gone through the process from primary Н
school to high school and even to university (in fact, as far as the Н
academical level of these schools was concerned, the main body was Н
still the high school with university-level classes in it). But Н
pressures from various sides threw these Christian high schools into a Н
dilemma from which they found great difficulty in freeing themselves.$
#M1A Study of American Christian High Schools in Beijing#m
#M2American Studies in China#m
First, politically, in the 20th century the imperialist powers Н
intensified their invasions of China. In the face of these Н
aggressions, the Chinese people had carried out various forms of Н
resistance. From 1923 to 1924, a nationwide movement was launched to Н
abolish the unequal treaties and recover the lost sovereignty. The Н
demand for recovering the educational rights, first made by Н
intellectuals and young students, was echoed by people from all walks Н
of life. The magazine #FKDirection#FS_ (#FKXiang Dao#FS), run by the Chinese Н
Communist Party, held that Christian education was "to train slavish Н
talents as pioneers of imperialism."#+[1]_ #FKThe Chinese Н
Educational Circle#FS_ put out a special issue of "Recovery of the Н
Educational Rights," appealing to take over the educational Н
institutions at all levels and run them by the Chinese. The magazine Н
specially pointed out that "the Christian high school is one type of Н
missionary schools and plays an important role as a link between Н
primary school and university. If high school students are seen as the Н
nucleus of the future, Christian high schools are institutions for НКtraining the main force in helping invade China." The focus of the Н
curriculum in these Christian high schools was on foreign languages Н
rather than on Chinese language so that the students were alienated Н
from their Chinese countryfellows both in their academic studies and Н
in their career orientations. Therefore, "how can we allow such Н
education to continue and expand?"#+[2]$
The May 30th Massacre, which took place in May 1925, again Н
fueled the movement of recovering the educational rights. The students Н
in Christian high schools boycotted their classes and involved Н
themselves in the movement out of patriotic enthusiasm. In June 1925, Н
the students in Mary Porter Gamewell School decided to withdraw Н
collectively because of the headmaster's ban on the students' Н
participation in the patriotic May 30th Movement. The action Н
taken by the students from Christian high schools added momentum to Н
the movement of recovering the educational rights as well as threw the Н
church and school authorities into a passive and embarrassing Н
situation.$
Secondly, ideologically, if we say that the major obstacle to the Н
spread of Christianity in late Qing Dynasty came from traditional Н
Chinese culture, then in the 1920's, the spread of Christianity became Н
more difficult as a result of the unfolding of the New Culture Н
Movement which advocated democracy and science and the spread of the Н
theory of evolution and materialism. Christianity, as a religion and a Н
system of idealism, became the target of suspicion and criticism among Н
the progressive intellectuals who used materialism and atheism as Н
their weapons.$
In 1919, Cai Yuanpei in a speech advocated the replacement of religion Н
by aesthetic education. In 1922, he put forward the view that religion Н
must be separated from education and education must be undertaken by Н
educationalists, completely freed from the influence of various Н
political parties and missionary denominations.#+[3]$
The criticism of religion, which was launched by intellectuals before Н
and after the May 4th Movement, touched on the issue of separating Н
religion from education. The demand for separating religion from Н
education became stronger during the protest against the holding of Н
the World Convention of Christian Students in China in 1923. In Н
October 1924, in the annual convention of National Educational Н
Association, a motion of separating religion from education was Н
adopted, which required the schools at all levels not to spread Н
religious doctrines or force the students to read the #FKBible#FS_ and attend Н
church services. This was a great blow to the Christian schools whose Н
intention was to spread Christian doctrines. If religious instruction Н
was excluded from educational programs, what would be the point of Н
setting up a Christian school?$
Thirdly, educationally, the Christian schools, emerging in the middle Н
and late nineteenth century as a new educational system, posed a Н
challenge to traditional education of China. But with the gradual Н
establishment of a new educational system in China, the Christian Н
school had lost its advantage.$
According to the statistics of the church, in 1916 there were 444 non-Н
Christian high schools in China and the total number of students was Н
69,770. There were 291 Christian schools with 15,213 students.
#+[4]_ The Christian schools lost their advantage not only in Н
quantity but also in quality because of the shortage of financial Н
support and teaching staff. Thus, the missionaries who had committed НКeducation uttered such worries: "If the Christian education in China Н
is compared with the state-run or non-Christian private education, it Н
will be weakened in its original orientation year after year."
#+[5]_ They went all out to seek solutions to the problems.$
The pressures from the above three sides sufficed to threaten the Н
existence of the Christian schools. In addition, the internal problems Н
of the Christian schools threw them into a more difficult situation.$
The Christian schools were unable to make ends meet because of the Н
shortage of funds. But in order to strengthen the indoctrination of Н
Christian messages, missionaries set up numerous schools regardless of Н
their limited manpower and financial resources. In fact even Н
missionaries themselves admitted that "the schools are far from Н
adequate in school buildings, facilities and teachers - the three Н
factors necessary for the establishment of an ordinary school. Н
Actually, all of our schools lacked two of the three factors. With the Н
exception of a few schools, almost all the schools did not reach their Н
functional standards in the three factors. In a word, we had too many Н
schools to run."#+[6]_ It was due to the scattering of manpower and Н
financial resources and the reduced donation from overseas because of Н
the economic depression in Europe and America after World War I that Н
the financial sources of the Christian schools were jammed. The Н
headmaster of Peking Academy complained about the staff's uneasiness Н
at their work owing to the low salaries. He held that with the growing Н
number of students, our income in tuition and food charge and so on Н
has greatly increased, but this method will soon reach its limit. Н
Increasing food charges can not add to the extra income because the Н
students just pay for their consumption. Only a small portion of Н
students are able and willing to pay for the added fares. The majority Н
of students come from poor families and keep their education going Н
with the scholarships and other financial supports. Increasing the Н
fares may take the risk of losing a large number of students and as a Н
result, the school will face the danger of non-Christianization. Our Н
purpose of setting up such a school is to provide the Christian Н
education to the young people in this country. If the examination on Н
religion is not required or completely canceled, the school would lose Н
the sympathy and support of its founders and sponsors.
#+[7]_ The Christian schools had to turn to the church for help Н
since they were unable to resolve their economic problems by Н
themselves. But as matter of fact, the church was in a similar helpН
less state.$
The students had troubles in transferring to another school, entering Н
a higher school of finding a job because the Christian schools had not Н
been registered in the government agency. So the problem became Н
increasingly outstanding that the students found it difficult to set Н
their mind to their study. As early as around 1909, the students wrote Н
to China Education Association (a Christian educational organization) Н
attacking the education they had received because the Qing government Н
did not acknowledge their diplomas or certificates of the Christian Н
school graduates and consequently they lost their voter qualification Н
in the election for monarchy rule. In the movement of recovering the Н
educational rights of 1924-1925, the students of the Christian schools Н
rose up to boycott their classes and withdraw from their school." Н
A large number of students in Truch Hall Academy withdrew because it was more and more difficult to Н
enter a higher school. As a result, the number of students was Н
drastically reduced and the school came to the verge of financial НКcollapse."#+[8]$
Faced with the two challenges from the Chinese society and the school Н
itself, the churches sent a delegation to investigate the Christian Н
education in China to propose a new readjustment policy after the Н
investigation.$
#T4II. Reforms and Solutions for Christian High Schools#t
Sponsored by the Rockfeller Group, in 1921 a delegation which was Н
composed of members from various denominations of Christianity in Н
Europe and the United States of America was sent in batches to Н
different regions of China to carry out an on-the-scene investigation Н
of various kinds of schools at all levels and publish "Christian Н
Education in China." The significance of this investigation was far-Н
reaching. The churches readjusted their educational policies and Н
helped the Christian schools through hard times and strengthened and Н
extended their influence and power in line with the suggestions of the Н
investigation delegation.$
Great changes also took place in Christian high schools as a result of Н
educational reform. It was these changes that gave Christian high Н
schools an opportunity to take a turn for the better and a way out of Н
their difficult situation. The changes were reflected in the following Н
three aspects:$
1. Importance was attached to the position and role of Christian high Н
schools$
Since the end of the nineteenth century, in order to train high-level Н
talents in preparation for the future control of Chinese society, Н
missionaries had given much stress to higher education and put into it Н
a lot of manpower and finance. As a result, higher education was Н
developed while primary and secondary education advanced at a slow Н
pace, resulting in the disjointedness of the whole educational system. Н
In the National Christian Convention held in 1922 in Shanghai, it was Н
pointed out: "it is at this stage (high school) that the students will Н
choose their life career as well as their standards for their life Н
goals. They are more apt to accept Christian doctrines and they are Н
determined to become Christian followers who would serve others rather Н
than be served by others. If they want to be the future leaders of Н
China, the majority wish to enter the Christian high school first. Н
... Meanwhile, a group of Christian teachers, religious instructors, 
along with many volunteer church workers, nurses, merchants and a group 
of women who are influential both in families and the church, probably Н
are solely recruited from these Christian high school students." Н
Therefore, "something must be done to set up more high schools and Н
build more beautiful school buildings and to have better-trained Н
teachers with good personality and to redesign school curriculum so Н
that the leaders with no religious titles in the church will play an Н
even more important role. But the existing school courses are useful Н
only for preparing to enter a university."#+[9]_ Clearly, Н
importance is attached to high schools and attention is called for.$
On the basis of wide-range investigation, the China Education Н
Investigation Delegation had formed a stronger consciousness of the Н
role of high school:$
The secondary education was an indispensable part of the whole Н
educational system and played a linking role. "Secondary education as Н
the backbone of the whole education system provides the primary Н
schools with most of the teachers. In the whole education structure, Н
the high school is the most stable and the most independent element. Н
That is why most students like to enter any of the Christian schools."К#+[10]$
High school students are the important force the church could win Н
over. Since high school is a significant stage for life development, Н
the church laid on high school students the hope of spreading Н
Christianity. "In the present Christian system, Christian high school Н
is virtually the most important part."#+[11]_ "We should find the Н
backbone of Christianity among the high school students rather than Н
among the primary school students or university students." "The Н
students who have not reached the level of high school are not able to Н
lead the people. At present, most students who have finished higher Н
education take up business or professional work. Therefore, the force Н
the church can rely on has to come from high schools."#+[12]$
The church admitted that secondary education had been much ignored and Н
began to pay attention to it. This also arose from the persistent Н
policy of the church of expanding and strengthening Christianity in Н
China. In the 1920's, the church put forward the slogan of Н
Christianization of China. To achieve this purpose, the church would Н
not only need the talents with high intelligence and quality but also Н
try to exert impacts on Chinese society through mass education (such Н
as secondary education) because mass education was characterized by Н
the large number of people involved and the widely-extended Н
influence.$
To concentrate their strength to develop education at various levels, Н
all the denomination in Beijing joined hands to set up Yenjing Н
University on the basis of the university departments of Peking Н
Academy, Bridgeman Girls' School and Jefferson Academy. These three Н
schools were restructured into pure high schools of three-three system Н
with three junior years and three senior years in accordance with the Н
new system laid down by the Chinese government. The separation of high Н
schools from the universities was of benefit to the further Н
development of high schools. Other high schools also adopted similar Н
changes. In 1922, Congshi High School became a three-three system school. In Н
1923, Mary Porter Gamewell School extended its school years from four Н
to six. In 1930, Yu Ying School added three years for senior Н
school. This readjustment laid the foundation for the future structure Н
of high schools which lasted till 1949.$
2. Stronger Tendencies of Signification$
In order to break away from the previous situation in which the school Н
was alienated from society and to reduce the prejudices the society Н
held against Christian schools, the church put forward the idea that Н
Christian education should be "geared to the needs of China rather Н
than favor the educational methods and categories of the original Н
country which might jeopardize the overall success of the Christian Н
cause in China."#+[13]_ Therefore, "the efforts we are now making Н
are directed at signifying Christian education and achieving thorough Н
signification rather than the assimilation of the Chinese people Н
through education."#+[14]$
The specific measures for signification were: first, to make Н
registration of the Christian schools with the Chinese government, Н
acknowledging that "Christian education is not incompatible with Н
government-run education"#+[15]_ and was an auxiliary form of state Н
educational system. Since 1925, these eight high schools had made Н
registration in government agency one after another. In the annual Н
convention of Presbysterian Church of North China in 1927, all the Н
participants thought that the registration had several benefits. "The НКgraduates from the unregistered high school will encounter some Н
difficulties in entering a university which has been registered or is Н
being registered. The school registered will be rid of all these Н
difficulties." "Registration will make the Christian schools keep pace Н
with the government-run schools in educational progress." Н
"Registration will make our schools cater to public opinions and put Н
an end to the hostile condemnation such as labeling us as the Н
'running dogs of foreignersбп and help rid us of the bad influence Н
brought about by the unequal treaties." Therefore, "we should take Н
advantage of the lenient conditions set by the warlord government in Н
Beijing and register now" or "registration will grow more difficult Н
with more severe restrictions in the future."#+[16]_ This may be Н
typical of what most church people thought.$
The second measure was to appoint the Chinese as headmasters of the Н
schools. The administrative power of the school was handed over to the Н
Chinese in form and the foreign teachers taught only English, music and Н
some other subjects and were put in charge of religious activities. Н
According to the regulations for approving the establishment of the Н
foreign-funded schools formulated by the warlord government in Н
Beijing, the church appointed a group of Chinese as the headmasters of Н
these eight Christian high schools such as Gao Fengshan of Peking Н
Academy, Guan Yeyu of Bridgeman Girls' School, Li Rusong of Yu Ying Н
School and Chen Changyou of Jefferson Academy. Most of them were early Н
graduates of Christian schools and had received higher education. Some Н
of them had even studies in the United States, Compared with the Н
missionary-turned-headmaster of the early Christian schools, they had Н
rich knowledge of educational science and knew how to run the school  Н
in scientific ways, Their terms in office were longer, some of which Н
lasted twenty to thirty years, they played an important role in the Н
post-1930's development of the schools. However, the church did not Н
give up all the administrative power. They tried to intervene in Н
school affairs through the school board instead.$
The third measure was to try as much as they could to design the Н
curriculum in line with the regulations of the government and attach Н
importance to the teaching and learning of the Chinese language. The Н
church thought that "Christian schools should try as much as possible Н
to accept the government-fixed curriculum so that, first, the Н
government inspectors car easily understand what they have seen in the Н
Christian schools; secondly, the fact will stand out that the Н
Christian schools sympathize with the government plan and thirdly, it Н
will be of benefit to the students in transferring from the Christian Н
school to the state-run schools."#+[17]_ Judged from the later Н
curriculum, it essentially tallied with the educational syllabus of the Н
government. For example, the Nationalist government required every Н
school to offer the course on the Nationalist Party education (later 
called education in the Three Н
People's Principles put forward by Dr. Sun Yat-sen) Н
and the Christian schools unexceptional fulfilled the Н
requirement. In addition, every Christian school paid attention to the Н
teaching of the Chinese language and offered high salaries to invite Н
teachers of Chinese and organized among the students societies for Н
research on Chinese culture. Peking Academy used the donation of 10,000 Н
yuan by the school graduates as a fund awarding those teachers who had Н
made remarkable achievements in Chinese language and culture.$
Through the above-mentioned measures, the church did its best to НКsignify the Christian schools and improve the previous image of the Н
school and reduce the prejudices the Chinese had been entertaining Н
against the school. This undoubtedly promoted the development of Н
Christian schools.$
3. Priority given to technical and professional education$
The early missionary school focused on #FKBible#FS_ learning although it also Н
introduced to the students knowledge of natural sciences and social Н
sciences. This was far from being able to satisfy the demands of the Н
Chinese public. To put it another way, the guiding principle for Н
running the school was out of line with the pressing demands of Н
Chinese society.$
After the tumultuous 1920's, the church Н
clearly saw that the existence and further development of 
the missionary school depended on Н
whether or not it could meet the demands of Chinese society. For this, Н
the church readjusted the principle for running the school especially Н
in religious instruction. Although it still stressed that the students Н
should be trained in "Christian virtues and religious consciousness," Н
some changes occurred in the form of education. "The number of hours Н
for religious insurrection in classroom is probably not so important Н
as the influence of the Christian spirit on the students, their Н
devotion to their accepted religious belief and their enthusiasm in Н
fulfilling the Christian obligations for their people. Whether the Н
everyday reading of the #FKBible#FS_ is necessary and the church service Н
should be compulsory, whether all the students must ally themselves Н
with the church should be put on the agenda at meetings of teachers Н
and headmasters."#+[18]_ That is to say, the students would no Н
longer be forced to accept Christianity but their Christianized Н
personalities would be cultivated through Christian education and the Н
imperceptible influence exerted on them by the speech and behavior of Н
the Christian teachers.$
Another significant change in the principle for running the school was Н
that the school laid more stress on professional and vocational Н
training which helped the students adjust themselves to the future Н
work considering the actual situation in China that most Н
students were unable to enter institutions of higher learning 
after they had Н
completed their high school education.$
Apart from ensuring the a number of students would enter institutions Н
of higher learning the school offered training, on education, commerce, Н
agriculture and craftsmanship. After adopting the three-three system, Peking Н
Academy divided its senior years into sections of humanities, natural Н
science, commerce and education. The graduates of commerce division Н
generally would not continue their education but take up work. The Н
students in the education section were trained to be teachers for the Н
primary schools. Truth Hall Academy set up divisions of lithographic Н
printing, carpet weaving, typographic printing and leather making not Н
only to provide those poor students with a living but also to provide Н
them with professional training. Jefferson Academy, by taking Н
advantage of its location in the neighborhood of the rural area, Н
introduced to the students some knowledge of agriculture, such as Н
apiculture, science of chicken raising and gardening. In the early Н
1930's, these courses were offered and taught by Mr. Yang Jinbo and Н
Hend, an American priest, and the teaching quality was superb. The Н
school also invited a very skilled gardener named Zhang to set up on НКcampus a bookkeeping farm and a nursery of young plants.$
It was the shared characteristic of the missionary schools of the Н
1920's to make the non-religious professional training stand out. To Н
the students, they acquired comprehensive and systematic knowledge Н
instead of religious knowledge only as it was the case in the past. Н
This laid a good foundation for them in giving full play to their Н
talents in various professions of the Chinese society. To the school, Н
owing to more job opportunities for the students, the influence of the Н
school became greater, which not only benefited the implementation of Н
the policy of Christianizing China but also complied with the original Н
intention of the missionaries. To the Chinese society, the educational Н
development provided a large number of talented people for its Н
development. The missionary school strengthened the professional Н
training in line with the social demands of China. For example, the Н
church held that "more than half of the Chinese population lived in Н
the rural areas so the underdeveloped rural education was indeed one Н
of the significant problems to the church, to the educational cause Н
and to the country." The practical effects brought about by stressing Н
the training in agriculture and its related professions were Н
beneficial to the social development of China.#+[19]$
In a word, the church had to adopt new policies so as to extricate Н
itself from the predicament in Christian education. The new policies Н
were the measures taken to adjust to the changing situation as well as Н
the product resulting from deeper understanding of Chinese society and Н
Chinese culture on the part of the missionaries. They had undergone Н
the transition from the total negative attitude towards traditional Н
Chinese culture to the acknowledgment of the rational elements in Н
Chinese culture and from the alienation from the Chinese society to Н
the gradual alignment with it. A very convincing example of this can Н
be found in the three changes in Christian high schools.$
#T4III. The Development of Missionary High$ 
Schools During the 1930's and 1940's#t
The readjustment of the policy of Christian education in the 1920's Н
undoubtedly provided more favorable conditions for the development of Н
missionary high schools. Besides, it must be noticed that this was Н
very much related to the social environment and the political Н
climate.$
In 1927, the Kuomintang government came into power in Nanjing. Its Н
policy towards the missionary school was different from that of the Н
Qing government and of the warlord government of Beijing. 
Since, the number of Н
missionary schools was not small, the government was apparently not in Н
a position to take them all over. On the other hand, the state-run Н
schools at all levels were not enough to meet the social demands. Н
Under such circumstance, the government, on one hand, issued laws and Н
decrees, stipulating that the foreigner-run schools must be registered Н
and incorporated into the state educational system and religious Н
instruction was prohibited in schools. On the other hand, the government Н
would not intervene in the school affairs as long as they were Н
registered in the government agency and would only send inspectors to Н
the schools periodically.$
The expansion of the missionary school after the 1930's brought Н
remarkable changes as reflected in the following aspects:$
1. The relation between the missionary school and the church$
After 1925, Peking Academy and seven other schools were НКregistered in the government agency and put under the leadership and Н
supervision of the government but meanwhile they kept the Н
administrative, economic and religious ties with the churches which Н
they belonged to.$
Administratively, the church got involved in the daily routine Н
management of the school through the school board. After the school Н
was registered, the church forsaked the direct administrative power and Н
appointed a group of Chinese as headmasters of the schools. The Н
resumes of these headmasters showed they all had certain ties with the Н
churches. To remote control the administration of the schools through Н
these people might be the real intention of the church. 
The school board was composed Н
of representatives from the church, local community and the school Н
graduates. For example, the school board of Truth Hall Academy Н
consisted of "four outside the school to be invited to be board Н
members, four local representatives, four school graduates and four Н
missionaries from the founding church. The headmaster was certainly on Н
the board."#+[20]$
There were few differences over the Н
responsibilities of the different school boards. Take Peking Academy Н
for example. It was stipulated that "the school board Н
shall take the full responsibility for and exercise the supreme power Н
over the school plans and school finance; the schoolmaster shall be Н
invited by the school board; the school faculty and staff workers Н
shall be recommended by the headmaster and approved by the school Н
board; the making and change of the school charter shall be Н
recommended by the headmaster and approved by the school board; the Н
school budget and the examination and final accounting of the school Н
expenses must be decided by the school board; the graduates of every Н
school year must be decided by the school board."#+[21]_ To sum up, Н
the school board was the decision-making body of the school. The church Н
occupied a decisive position in the school board owing to its Н
historical tie with the school, got involved in school administrative Н
affairs through the board and such involvement was usually Н
authoritative.$
The main financial source of the school was the tuition and other Н
miscellaneous charges. The school was no longer dependent solely upon Н
church subsidies, but it was not completely financially independent Н
and it must rely on the church to some degree. According to Н
statistics, from 1932 to 1940, Peking Academy and seven other Н
schools received from the church subsidies ranging from 630 yuan to Н
20,000 yuan. Sometimes church subsidies had great bearing upon the Н
continued existence of the school. In 1936, Mary Porter Gamewell Н
School was told "the founder of the school intends to merge the school Н
into Tianjin Anglo-Chinese Girls' School or leave it to seek financial Н
independence, and the subsidies will be reduced by half from this year Н
on till final termination in 1938."#+[22]_ To Mary Porter Gamwell Н
School, it was a heavy blow and "the most disappointing news."
#+[23]_ Later, the whole school felt relieved after the church had Н
again agreed to allocate funds to the school.$
The missionary school remained religion-oriented to a certain extent, Н
so it inevitably kept its contact with the church in the field of Н
religious activity. The school was not allowed to carry on religious Н
instruction to the students according to government regulations, so Н
forced religious education was canceled at every school and the НКpolicy of religious freedom was adopted. Compared with the early stage Н
of the missionary schools, religious atmosphere was relatively weak. Н
However, owing to the religious traditions and the fact that most of Н
the school faculty and staff workers were Christian converts, Н
religious activities in the schools were still vigorous.$
One reason was that there were a group of students with Christian Н
beliefs. According to statistics in the annual reports from 1932 to Н
1940 issued by China Christian Education Association, among the Н
students of the eight schools, the percentage of Christian followers Н
ranged from 8% to 50% and that of religious admirers ranged from 1% to Н
55%. The percentage of female converts was in general higher than that Н
of males.#+[24]_ In studying the reason why there were so many Н
Christian believers among the students in these schools when religious Н
atmosphere was weak in the whole society, family influence could not Н
be ignored, apart from the school traditions and the influence of Н
their teachers.$
Another reason was the relation between the religious organizations Н
and leadership in schools. The earliest religious organization at the Н
missionary school was Young Christians Association (initially called Н
Association of Young Believers). Around 1885, this kind of Н
organization was founded in Jefferson Academy which was among the Н
earliest schools in the whole country to have such organization. After Н
the 1920's, the chief form of religious organization at the missionary Н
school was Christian Fellowship, an organization mainly composed of Н
students and teachers of the missionary school. Christian Н
Fellowship and other religious organizations were organized Н
spontaneously by students and guided jointly by the school and the Н
church. "The division of life guidance" in Yu Ying School was in Н
charge of supervising the religious activities and in Truth Hall Н
Academy a Religious Education Committee was founded for this purpose. Н
The Young Men's Н
Christian Association and Young Women's Christian Association in Н
Beiping had sections in charge of school activities and often sent Н
young staff to do work in the schools.$
The third reason was the form and content of religious activities. The Н
activities during the beginning years of the school were simple and Н
uninteresting. During the initial period after the Young Christians Н
Association had been set up at Yu Ying School, "they had no other Н
activities except reading the #FKBible#FS, praying and holding church Н
service."#+[25]  
After the 1930's, the forms of religious activities became varied and Н
the content enriched to attract more students and to avoid violating Н
the government decree of prohibiting religious activities at the Н
schools. The main contents were: first, selective courses on religion. Н
These courses included philosophy of religion, history of religion and Н
ethics, etc. According to the 1931 report of Mary Porter Gamewell Н
School, "one third of the students chose the courses on religion even Н
though considerably high level of homework was required for these Н
courses. There were more students taking the courses in the second Н
term than in the first."#+[26]_ Second, church service, prayers and Н
reading the #FKBible#FS. These activities were spontaneous rather than compulsory. Н
Third, speeches and discussions, which touched on a great variety of Н
topics involving human life and human society and were not just Н
confined to religion. Fourthly, sports and recreational activities. Н
Fellowship would organize some activities during Christmas, Easter and НКthe beginning of the spring term of every year. Choir singing, outing Н
and picknicking were also the forms of religious activities. Fifth, Н
social activities. The religious activities of every school aimed at Н
"human welfare in the spirit of Christian love, spiritual solidarity Н
and following the Christian spirit of sacrifice."#+[27]_ Therefore, Н
social service was an important form and content of religious Н
activities. Every school set up Sunday school to offer free Н
educational service.$
The vigorous religious activities offered the missionaries an Н
opportunity to contact and influence the students. They administered Н
and chaired school routine religious activities till 1949.$
2. The teaching quality of the missionary school and social Н
evaluation$Н
During the 1930's and 1940's, among the state-run, city-run and Н
private schools in Beiping. Peking Academy and seven other Н
Christian schools ranked high in teaching quality. In the 1934 Н
provincial-level examination given to high school students of Hebei Н
Province (including Tianjin City), Jefferson Academy ranked first. In Н
the citywide examination of Beiping of the same year, Yu Ying Н
School won the team championship of senior high and champions for Н
individuals of both junior and senior high. For this, Mr. Dingjin, one Н
of the social celebrities, presented to the school a horizontal board Н
on which was inscribed "Double Champions" and which was hanged over Н
the school gate. Also in this examination, Bridgeman Girls' School Н
ranked fifth Peking Academy eighth among the group of senior high Н
schools. In the 1936 citywide examination, all of the 250 graduate of Н
Yu Ying Junior School succeeded in passing the exam.$
The high teaching quality of the missionary schools directly related Н
to the quality of the teaching staff. Most teachers had received Н
higher education and some of them even had further study overseas. It Н
was mentioned in the 1921 report of the headmaster of Peking Academy Н
that two doctor-degree-holders returned from the United States had Н
come to teach at the school that year. From 1930 to 1934, more than Н
half of the teachers in Bridgeman Girls' School had Н
bachelor degrees. In order to ensure that the school would have a Н
contingent of high-quality teaching staff, every school managed to Н
provide the teachers with the good working and living conditions. Yu Н
Ying School offered high salary to invite excellent teachers so Н
as to ensure the teaching quality, Bridgeman Girls' School gave single Н
rooms to those teachers who lived on campus and hired a person to wash Н
the clothes for those teachers living on campus every week. There were Н
also over ten pianos for the entertainment of teachers at any time.$
The high teaching quality of the missionary school also depended on Н
the flexible and varied teaching methods the school used. The school Н
eliminated the outmoded method of imbuement and replaced it with the Н
lively method of elicitation and worked to further improve this Н
method. In the teaching of science courses, the teachers made the Н
teaching vivid and interesting by making use of the experiments Н
besides teaching the fundamentals. When Sun Niantai, a physics Н
teacher at Bridgeman Girls's School, gave a lecture on Н
electricity induction, he asked the whole class to form a circle Н
hand in hand, then set up static electricity on one student's hand and Н
all the students felt electrified and let off the hand they had Н
grasped. This scene was still alive in the memory of the school Н
graduates even after many years. English was one of the most important НКcourses at the missionary school. Apart from English grammar, English Н
conversation and English writing, the teachers also gave students Н
instructions on English poetry reading and teach them sing English songs Н
so as to make students more interested in English learning. Н
Furthermore, every school offered optional courses to senior students Н
to broaden their outlook as well as to provide them with special Н
skills so that they could adjust themselves to future work.$
To ensure the normal operation of teaching and learning, all the Н
schools formulated a complete set of rules and regulations. The school Н
regulations of Peking Academy were in great detail and there were Н
strict rules on the entrance to a higher school, course selection, Н
examination, asking for leave, dropouts, suspension of schooling and Н
rewarding of the students etc. The girl students at Н
Mary Porter Gamewell School regarded Saturday afternoon as their holiday Н
because only this time every week were they allowed to get out of Н
school. "Everyone got a leave permit, took their bags and walked out Н
of school in high spirits. Some of them took off their school dress Н
and put on an article of bright-colored clothes or a new pair of Н
leather shoes. They must come back before six thirty. Although Н
between-meal nibles were not allowed according to school regulation, Н
today was a harmless exception."#+[28]_ Strict regulations Н
restrained students' behavior, helped them form the good habit of Н
consciously abiding by the disciplines and guaranteed the normal Н
operation of teaching and learning.$
Thanks to the efforts made to upgrade the quality of the teachers, Н
improve teaching method and strengthen the supervision of students, Н
there was an apparent improvement in the teaching quality of the Н
missionary school which won the praise of the society. 
The number of students at school multiplied. Н
When Peking Academy was first founded in the 1870's there were only Н
three students, but in 1931 the school had 904 students. Meanwhile, Н
the students' backgrounds began to change. They were no longer Н
children from poor families but instead the majority came from Н
families of upper social circles such as merchants, politicians, Н
officers and doctors, etc.$
3. The missionary school and the society$
As mentioned above, after the 1920's, the churches readjusted their Н
principle for running school and the understanding that the school Н
should get involved in the society and serve the society gained Н
importance and was strengthened. This was not only shown in the fact Н
that the school had geared the content of its teaching to the demands Н
of Chinese society and attached importance to the teaching of Н
practical knowledge but also in that the school paid attention to the Н
training of the practical skills of the students in order to adjust Н
them to their future career. It was also out of this purpose that the Н
school conducted various kinds of extracurricular activities.$
Extracurricular activities of these schools are varied in form and Н
rich in content. One of the features was to organize sports activities Н
on a large scale to build up strong bodies and serve the society. The Н
missionary school was undoubtedly the first among the schools in China Н
to offer the course on physical education. Peking Academy, Yu Ying, Н
Jefferson Academy and other schools all had good sports facilities and Н
the headmasters would even lead the teams in person every time there Н
were matches. The sports performance of the eight missionary schools Н
was first class among the schools in Beijing. "Locomotive" Basketball НКTeam of Yu Ying School met no rivals. Peking Academy Football Team Н
enjoyed high reputation in the whole city during the 1930's because it Н
had even defeated university team.$
Peking Academy held that Н
physical education "was not just to train the few sports stars who Н
could bring honor and reputation to the school but to teach all the Н
students how to exercise so that they will keep good health."
#+[29]_ The Н
headmaster of Peking Academy said proudly, The physical training of Н
the students has achieved satisfactory results in improving the Н
students' health conditions. In our school, there is no student Н
seriously ill or dead.#+[30]_ Moreover, the missionary schools Н
emphasized the practical effects of physical education and associated Н
physical training with serving the society and national invigoration. Н
After the September Eighteenth Incident, the sports ground of the Fall Н
Sports Meet of Yu Ying School were flooded with patriotic slogans such Н
as "To make our country strong you must have strong body," Н
"Imperialism can be overthrown as long as we stress physical Н
education." Sports became the means and form of national Н
salvation and national survival.$
The existence of a large number of societies was another characteristic Н
of the extracurricular activities at the missionary schools. These Н
societies could be roughly divided into three kinds: sports and Н
recreation, academic and religious. Most of the societies were Н
organized by the students themselves and the school authorities took a Н
supportive attitude because they considered this a good opportunity to Н
build up the students' ability in self-government. They set up special Н
organization to give guidance to students' extracurricular Н
activities.$
The students not only increased their knowledge and enriched their life Н
but also had better understanding of the society they lived in through Н
conducting extracurricular activities in the way of inviting people to Н
the school or going out of the school campus to get involved in the Н
society. The students of Yu Ying School realized through visiting the Н
lunatic asylum that "we go to the asylum not just to see the patients, Н
but we can know that in this complicated society who among the people Н
of different classes, it living in the worst condition and Н
#^suffering#^ Н
_most through analysing the causes of madness and the class percentage Н
of the lunatic."#+[31]_ The Н
students, however, did not stop at that, they knew the society better Н
through participating in extracurricular activities and bravely Н
plunged into the society and into the mighty political movement.$
During the May 4th Movement, the students from Peking Academy took to Н
street. On March 18, 1928, two students of Peking Academy were Н
killed in the movement of protesting against the reactionary rule of Н
the government headed by Duan Qirui. After September 18th Incident, all Н
the schools participated in the anti-Japanese movement in various Н
ways - donation, consoling soldiers on battlefields and doing Н
propaganda work, etc.$
Drastic changes took place in the Chinese society after the 1920's. Н
This made the students of the missionary schools break out of their Н
limited religious circle to face social reality and to link their Н
individual destiny closely with the fate of the state and the people.$
#T4IV. Conclusion: The Role of the Missionary School#t
The eight American Christian high schools in Beijing entered an era of НКexpansion in the 1930's and 1940's after the readjustment of the Н
1920's. Short as it was in the history of the missionary schools, it Н
was a significant period because the schools had far-reaching impacts on Н
the Chinese society and Chinese history. Most indicative of the role Н
of the schools was the students it had trained.$
In the early period of the missionary school, however ambitious the Н
missionaries' plans were, the number of graduates from the missionary Н
school was limited. Most graduates took up religious work or related Н
professions. They could not become an influential group at all in the Н
political and cultural circles of the Chinese society. This situation Н
was markedly altered in the 1920's, especially in the 1930's. The Н
indication of the changes was that the number or graduates saw a great Н
increase. Most of the missionary school graduates entered institutions Н
of higher learning. Even if they began to work after they had finished Н
high school, they were no longer just engaged in religious work. Most Н
of them would work in the fields of commerce, industry and education, Н
etc. This probably was directly related to what the missionary schools Н
advocated: salvation of the nation through education and industry. I Н
have made a rough statistical survey according to the list of names in Н
the Album of Jefferson Academy Graduates: among 109 graduates from Н
1930 to 1935 in the album, nine worked in the government, two took up Н
military career, four worked in the field of commerce and industry, 72 Н
worked in the fields of education, science and technology and 22 were Н
unknown. Those engaged in education, science and technology accounted Н
for 65% of the total. The professions the graduates of seven other Н
schools took up were roughly the same. The majority of the missionary Н
school graduates were patriotic and became the key talents in various Н
fields.$
High school is often compared to the golden period of human life. Н
These talented people who worked in the various fields throughout the Н
country and made tremendous contributions to the country spent their Н
golden period in the missionary school. During this period, what did Н
they learn at the missionary school and what role did the school play Н
on their way to success? This can be seen from the following aspects:$
1. Moral education. All the eight schools had their own mottoes. Yu Н
Ying: Devotion to Learning and Active Implementation. Bridgeman: 
Be Career-oriented and Ready to Help Others. Mary Porter Н
Gamewell: Loyalty, Integrity and Thrift, Devotion to Learning and Н
Active Implementation, Think Scientifically and Behave with Н
Discipline. Jefferson: Education for Character-building. Н
Jefferson Academy also advocated that the same importance should be Н
attached to three categories of education. The school motto was the Н
concrete expression of the principle for running school. The school Н
restrained the students' daily behavior according to the motto while Н
the students were imperceptibly influenced by the motto. The Bridgeman Н
Girls' School motto required that the students should be career-Н
oriented, conscientious and meticulous. Most students at Bridgeman Н
Girls' School came from middle-class families but they were unwilling Н
to be "young mistress and rich wife" after graduation and devoted Н
themselves to their careers. Among Bridgeman Girls' School graduates Н
were Xie Binxin, a literary figure, Wang Xiuying, a winner of Н
Nantingale Prize and Xie Xide, a physicist, etc. Bridgeman Girls' School also required Н
that the students should love and help each other. The students and Н
teachers had close relations and the students particularly respected Н
the work of the workers on campus. On May 1 of every year, the НКstudents would take over out of their own will the work of these Н
workers and let them have a day off. This may not be worth mentioning Н
today, but at that time this was praiseworthy because the laboring Н
people were at the bottom of the society. It needs to be pointed out Н
that these school motto were essentially influenced by the doctrines Н
of Christianity and tallied with what Christianity advocated - loyalty, Н
universal love, sacrifice and service.$
2. Learning and ability training. All the eight missionary schools Н
spared no efforts to teach the students knowledge but they attached Н
more importance to the training of the students' abilities. Offering Н
optional courses and organizing extracurricular activities certainly Н
could enrich the students' knowledge but what was more important was Н
they embodied the element of building up the students' abilities. All Н
the schools intentionally helped the students acquire the ability of Н
self-management. Bridgeman Girls' School founded its Students' Union Н
following the set-up of the municipal government with the school as a Н
city and bureaus under the city in charge of specific work. The Н
students' canteen of Peking Academy was managed by the students in Н
turn and this provided them with an opportunity to give a full play to Н
their abilities. The training of abilities was far more significant Н
than teaching knowledge because the students would benefit from it all Н
their life. A lot of the missionary school graduates shared the view Н
that their independent work and achievement were to a large degree the Н
result of the training of abilities during their high school years. Н
Such an approach in education is still enlightening today and worth Н
modeling after.$
3. The formation of new values and new life outlook. Owing to the Н
special status and environment of the missionary school, it had more 
direct contacts with Western culture and society compared with the 
state-run or city-run schools. This contact led to two results: some Н
people had a sense of national inferiority and blind faith in things Н
foreign while more people, faced with the powerful West, were aroused Н
to study for national salvation and making the country rich and the Н
army strong. Meanwhile, because of the frequent exposure to the Н
irritation of political, religious and racial prejudices of certain Н
foreign forces, the students were easy to have natinalist feeling and Н
ready to accept revolutionary ideologies. Therefore, the students of Н
the missionary schools were active participants of all the patriotic, Н
anti-imperialist movements.$
It goes without saying that the Christian high schools, or the Н
missionary schools in a broader sense, were related in varying degrees Н
to Western colonlalism and the craze about spreading Christianity Н
overseas among the religious circles in Europe and the United States. Н
However, the missionary school was a humiliation if seen from the Н
stand of national feeling because the setting up of schools in China Н
by foreign missionaries infringed on the educational right of our Н
country. If seen from the perspective of the development of modern Н
civilization, the missionary school played a certain role in Н
disseminating Western culture and "Western scientific and Н
technological knowledge and enlightening the Chinese people. Н
Furthermore, the missionary schools had turned out many useful talents Н
especially after the twenties of this century when the educational Н
function of the school grew more conspicuous while its religious Н
function was much weakened. This was actually the social effect the Н
school produced rather than the original intention of those missionary НКeducators.$
#T4NOTES#t
##[D1J100P80]
_#+[1]_#FKDirection#FS_ (#FKXiang Dao#FS), Issue 63.$
_#+[2]_#FKChina Educational Circle#FS, No. 8, Vo1. 14.$
_#+[3]_#FKThe Complete Works of Cai Yuanpei#FS, 1984, Н
China Publishing House, Vo1.2, p.491.$
_#+[4]_#FKChristian Education in China#FS, Commercial Н
Press, 1922, pp.376-7.$
_#+[5]_#FKReport of the National Christian Convention#FS, Н
1922, Shanghai, p.22.$
_#+[6]_#FKChristian Occupation of China#FS, 1987, China Н
Social Sciences Publishing House, Book 2, p.910.$
_#+[7]_#FKMinutes of the North China Conference#FS, the Н
Methodist Church, 1915, p.100.$
_#+[8]_#FKTruth Hall Academy Quarterly#FS, 1929, No. 8.$
_#+[9]_#FKReport of the National Christian Convention#FS, Н
pp.48-49.$
_#+[10]_#FKChristian Education in China#FS, p.79.$
_#+[11]_#FKIbid#FS.$
_#+[12]_#FKIbid#FS., p.45.$
_#+[13]_#FKIbid#FS., p.317.$
_#+[14]_#FKTeachers' Series#FS, China Christian Education Н
Association, 1924, No. 2, Vol .1.$
_#+[15]_#FKChristian Education in China#FS, p.316.$
_#+[16]_#FKMinutes of a Joint Conference and of the Annual Meeting in Н
North China Mission of the Prebysterians#FS, 1927, p.11.$
_#+[17]_#FKChristian Occupation of China#FS, Book 2, p.901.$
_#+[18]_#FKChristian Education in China#FS, pp.92-97.$
_#+[19]_#FKIbid#FS., p.84.$
_#+[20]_#FKTruth Hall Academy Quarterly#FS, No. 8.$
_#+[21]_#FKPeking Academy Yearbook#FS, 1936.$
_#+[22]_#FKMary Porter Gamewell Schoolnews#FS, 1st Issue of 1939.$
_#+[23]_#FKIbid.#FS$
_#+[24]_#FKChristian Middle Н
School in China, 1932-1940#FS, China Christian Education Association.$
_#+[25]_#FKYu Ying Yearbook#FS, 1919.$
_#+[26]_#FKMinutes of the North China Н
Conference#FS, The Methodist Church, 1922, pp.109- 10.$
_#+[27]_#FKBridgeman Girls' School Yearbook#FS, 1938.$
_#+[28]_#FKMary Porter Gamewell Schoolnews#FS, 1940, No. 8.$
_#+[29]_#FKMinutes of the North China Н
Conference#FS, The Methodist Church, 1922, p.95.$
_#+[30]_#FKIbid#FS., p.31.$
_#+[31]_#FKYu Ying Yearbook#FS, 1932.$#E